Meyer’s Parrots in the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area
Email: editor@avizandum.co.za - Phone: 082 492 1253
| Tree common name | Tree scientific name | Part parasitised | Insect | Month |
| Marula tree | Sclerocarya birrea caffra | Fruit pulp | Red marula caterpillar * Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidotera, Pyralidae) | Feb-Apr |
| Russet bushwillow | Combretum hereroense | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-Jul |
| Clusterleaf tree | Terminalia sericea | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-May |
| Camel thorn | Acacia erioloba | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Bruchidius uberatus * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Feb-Mar |
| Mopane | Colophospermum mopane | Petioles, leaves | Psyllid bug Arytaina mopani and exudate (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) | Aug-Sep |
* Important during the breeding season. Adapted from Boyes (2008)
Table 2. Comparison of relative food availability and amount of feeding on insect food items by Meyer’s Parrots
| Tree common name | 1 RRAi x 10-3 | 2 Per cent of max. RRAi | 3 Food item | No. feeding bouts | 4 Per cent of max. bouts |
| Marula tree | 535 | 11.2 | Moth larvae | 35 | 16.6 |
| Russet bushwillow | 1612 | 33.6 | Beetle larvae | 108 | 51.2 |
| Clusterleaf tree | 502 | 10.5 | Beetle larvae | 72 | 34.1 |
| Mopane | 3591 | 74.9 | Moth larvae True bugs | 88 29 | 41.7 13.7 |
1. Index of relative resource (food) abundance. 2. Per cent of the maximum RRAi of 4794 for the jackalberry tree. 3. Parasitic Lepidoptera (moth) larvae; Hemiptera (true bugs) and exudate; parasitic Coleoptera (beetle) larvae. 4.Per cent of the maximum number of feeding bouts of 211 (on ripe seeds) for the sycamore fig.
Adapted from Boyes (2008)
In researching the reproduction of Meyer’s Parrots, Boyes (2008) measured 75 nest cavities, including 28 nest cavities utilized by the parrots, twelve of which were used by active breeding pairs for nesting within the 430ha study area in the Okavango. Intensive nest observations revealed that Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons, although there was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to approximately 160 ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. Social constraints such as inter-specific competition for nest cavities, predation risk and brood parasitism likely supported the early incubation that facilitated this asynchrony. Probable significant factors in the timing and synchrony of breeding at population level were rainfall seasonality and the consumption of parasitic insect larvae incubating in pods and fruits of the diet. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences for nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this long-lived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Throughout its southern distributional range, Meyer’s Parrot has an auxiliary breeding season (September–November) in addition to the primary breeding season. It is also a species maintained in aviculture.
| Tree common name | Tree scientific name | Part parasitised | Insect | Month |
| Marula tree | Sclerocarya birrea caffra | Fruit pulp | Red marula caterpillar * Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidotera, Pyralidae) | Feb-Apr |
| Russet bushwillow | Combretum hereroense | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-Jul |
| Clusterleaf tree | Terminalia sericea | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-May |
| Camel thorn | Acacia erioloba | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Bruchidius uberatus * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Feb-Mar |
| Mopane | Colophospermum mopane | Petioles, leaves | Psyllid bug Arytaina mopani and exudate (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) | Aug-Sep |
* Important during the breeding season. Adapted from Boyes (2008)
Table 2. Comparison of relative food availability and amount of feeding on insect food items by Meyer’s Parrots
| Tree common name | 1 RRAi x 10-3 | 2 Per cent of max. RRAi | 3 Food item | No. feeding bouts | 4 Per cent of max. bouts |
| Marula tree | 535 | 11.2 | Moth larvae | 35 | 16.6 |
| Russet bushwillow | 1612 | 33.6 | Beetle larvae | 108 | 51.2 |
| Clusterleaf tree | 502 | 10.5 | Beetle larvae | 72 | 34.1 |
| Mopane | 3591 | 74.9 | Moth larvae True bugs | 88 29 | 41.7 13.7 |
1. Index of relative resource (food) abundance. 2. Per cent of the maximum RRAi of 4794 for the jackalberry tree. 3. Parasitic Lepidoptera (moth) larvae; Hemiptera (true bugs) and exudate; parasitic Coleoptera (beetle) larvae. 4.Per cent of the maximum number of feeding bouts of 211 (on ripe seeds) for the sycamore fig.
Adapted from Boyes (2008)
In researching the reproduction of Meyer’s Parrots, Boyes (2008) measured 75 nest cavities, including 28 nest cavities utilized by the parrots, twelve of which were used by active breeding pairs for nesting within the 430ha study area in the Okavango. Intensive nest observations revealed that Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons, although there was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to approximately 160 ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. Social constraints such as inter-specific competition for nest cavities, predation risk and brood parasitism likely supported the early incubation that facilitated this asynchrony. Probable significant factors in the timing and synchrony of breeding at population level were rainfall seasonality and the consumption of parasitic insect larvae incubating in pods and fruits of the diet. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences for nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this long-lived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Throughout its southern distributional range, Meyer’s Parrot has an auxiliary breeding season (September–November) in addition to the primary breeding season. It is also a species maintained in aviculture.
| Tree common name | Tree scientific name | Part parasitised | Insect | Month |
| Marula tree | Sclerocarya birrea caffra | Fruit pulp | Red marula caterpillar * Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidotera, Pyralidae) | Feb-Apr |
| Russet bushwillow | Combretum hereroense | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-Jul |
| Clusterleaf tree | Terminalia sericea | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-May |
| Camel thorn | Acacia erioloba | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Bruchidius uberatus * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Feb-Mar |
| Mopane | Colophospermum mopane | Petioles, leaves | Psyllid bug Arytaina mopani and exudate (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) | Aug-Sep |
* Important during the breeding season. Adapted from Boyes (2008)
Table 2. Comparison of relative food availability and amount of feeding on insect food items by Meyer’s Parrots
| Tree common name | 1 RRAi x 10-3 | 2 Per cent of max. RRAi | 3 Food item | No. feeding bouts | 4 Per cent of max. bouts |
| Marula tree | 535 | 11.2 | Moth larvae | 35 | 16.6 |
| Russet bushwillow | 1612 | 33.6 | Beetle larvae | 108 | 51.2 |
| Clusterleaf tree | 502 | 10.5 | Beetle larvae | 72 | 34.1 |
| Mopane | 3591 | 74.9 | Moth larvae True bugs | 88 29 | 41.7 13.7 |
1. Index of relative resource (food) abundance. 2. Per cent of the maximum RRAi of 4794 for the jackalberry tree. 3. Parasitic Lepidoptera (moth) larvae; Hemiptera (true bugs) and exudate; parasitic Coleoptera (beetle) larvae. 4.Per cent of the maximum number of feeding bouts of 211 (on ripe seeds) for the sycamore fig.
Adapted from Boyes (2008)
In researching the reproduction of Meyer’s Parrots, Boyes (2008) measured 75 nest cavities, including 28 nest cavities utilized by the parrots, twelve of which were used by active breeding pairs for nesting within the 430ha study area in the Okavango. Intensive nest observations revealed that Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons, although there was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to approximately 160 ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. Social constraints such as inter-specific competition for nest cavities, predation risk and brood parasitism likely supported the early incubation that facilitated this asynchrony. Probable significant factors in the timing and synchrony of breeding at population level were rainfall seasonality and the consumption of parasitic insect larvae incubating in pods and fruits of the diet. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences for nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this long-lived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Throughout its southern distributional range, Meyer’s Parrot has an auxiliary breeding season (September–November) in addition to the primary breeding season. It is also a species maintained in aviculture.
| Tree common name | Tree scientific name | Part parasitised | Insect | Month |
| Marula tree | Sclerocarya birrea caffra | Fruit pulp | Red marula caterpillar * Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidotera, Pyralidae) | Feb-Apr |
| Russet bushwillow | Combretum hereroense | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-Jul |
| Clusterleaf tree | Terminalia sericea | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-May |
| Camel thorn | Acacia erioloba | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Bruchidius uberatus * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Feb-Mar |
| Mopane | Colophospermum mopane | Petioles, leaves | Psyllid bug Arytaina mopani and exudate (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) | Aug-Sep |
* Important during the breeding season. Adapted from Boyes (2008)
Table 2. Comparison of relative food availability and amount of feeding on insect food items by Meyer’s Parrots
| Tree common name | 1 RRAi x 10-3 | 2 Per cent of max. RRAi | 3 Food item | No. feeding bouts | 4 Per cent of max. bouts |
| Marula tree | 535 | 11.2 | Moth larvae | 35 | 16.6 |
| Russet bushwillow | 1612 | 33.6 | Beetle larvae | 108 | 51.2 |
| Clusterleaf tree | 502 | 10.5 | Beetle larvae | 72 | 34.1 |
| Mopane | 3591 | 74.9 | Moth larvae True bugs | 88 29 | 41.7 13.7 |
1. Index of relative resource (food) abundance. 2. Per cent of the maximum RRAi of 4794 for the jackalberry tree. 3. Parasitic Lepidoptera (moth) larvae; Hemiptera (true bugs) and exudate; parasitic Coleoptera (beetle) larvae. 4.Per cent of the maximum number of feeding bouts of 211 (on ripe seeds) for the sycamore fig.
Adapted from Boyes (2008)
In researching the reproduction of Meyer’s Parrots, Boyes (2008) measured 75 nest cavities, including 28 nest cavities utilized by the parrots, twelve of which were used by active breeding pairs for nesting within the 430ha study area in the Okavango. Intensive nest observations revealed that Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons, although there was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to approximately 160 ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. Social constraints such as inter-specific competition for nest cavities, predation risk and brood parasitism likely supported the early incubation that facilitated this asynchrony. Probable significant factors in the timing and synchrony of breeding at population level were rainfall seasonality and the consumption of parasitic insect larvae incubating in pods and fruits of the diet. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences for nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this long-lived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Throughout its southern distributional range, Meyer’s Parrot has an auxiliary breeding season (September–November) in addition to the primary breeding season. It is also a species maintained in aviculture.
David Waugh
Correspondent, Loro Parque Fundación
Okavango, a word that conjures up images of large African mammals and myriad waterbirds in the inland delta of the same name in Botswana. Long has the Okavango Delta been synonymous with conservation, being a World Heritage Site covering an area of 20,236 km2 with a buffer zone of 22,866 km2. Since 2011 it has been encompassed within a vast area (519,000 km2) of the southern part of Africa dedicated to help bolster harmony between humans and wildlife, with a special focus on nature tourism. This area is the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), spanning five southern African countries: Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Loro Parque Fundación supports projects in KAZA, in Angola and Zimbabwe, for the conservation of African lions (Panthera leo), their prey species and the mosaic of habitats and multitudinous other plant and animal species that sustain them and stand to benefit from the conservation efforts.
Lacking the charisma of large mammals or brightly coloured birds, most of the supporting species easily pass unnoticed, unless perhaps they sting or bite you. A recent article (Grobler, 2023) has brought into focus their importance, examining the impacts of fire and grazing on insect and other arthropod communities in the delta. Human induced disturbances have become more common and regular along the edges and within the Okavango Delta over the last few decades, and fire and livestock grazing has increased the pressure on the natural systems in which it occurs. Aquatic invertebrates are relatively well-studied there, and so the recent research focused on terrestrial arthropods by comparing the diversity and abundance of four terrestrial arthropod groups (ants, wasps, springtails and spiders) in burnt and grazed sites. Species richness, evenness and diversity varied between trapping methods and between groups studied, illustrating the varied responses of arthropod communities to disturbances. This study has created the first starting point dataset for comparing the impacts that disturbances have on arthropod community shape and composition in Okavango. It is also a reminder that a species of parrot which includes a substantial proportion of insects in its diet lives there. This is Meyer’s or Brown Parrot (Poicephalus meyeri), one of five native species of parrots occurring in KAZA, the others being Brown-necked Parrot (P. fuscicollis suahelicus), Brown-headed Parrot (P. cryptoxanthus), the threatened Black-cheeked Lovebird (Agapornis nigrigenis) and Nyasa or Lilian’s Lovebird (A. lilianae).
Meyer’s Parrot is not currently considered to be a threatened species, and indeed not only is it found throughout most of KAZA, but it also has the most extensive geographical distribution of any parrot on the African continent, occurring in 21 countries, from Eritrea in the north to South Africa in the south. Of many interesting aspects of Meyer’s Parrot, the relatively insect-rich diet is one which had scant mention in the literature until the exhaustive research on the species in the years 2004 to 2007 by Dr Stephen Boyes, supervised by Professor Mike Perrin of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Boyes, 2008). Centred on the Okavango Delta, the research aimed to correlate environmental and social variables with aspects of the ecology of the species in order to evaluate the degree of specialisation in its use of resources. Thus, aspects such as habitat availability, food resource abundance, inter- and intra-specific competition, human disturbance, food preferences and breeding activity were included in the research.
The research concluded that Meyer’s Parrot is a habitat specialist, preferring established galleries of riverine forest and associated marginal Acacia-Combretum woodland, especially dominated by knob-thorn (Acacia nigrescens) and leadwood (Combretum imberbe) trees, these habitat associations facilitating the species’ broad distribution in Africa. However, in terms of diet Meyer’s Parrot is considered to be an opportunistic generalist pre-dispersal seed predator that tracks food availability across a wide range of potential dietary items, including 71 different items from 37 tree species in 16 families. Seed predation accounted for 62 per cent of total observed feeding bouts, of which 42 per cent were ripe seeds. Fig and insect predation were next, with a frequency of 13 per cent each. Flower predation accounted for 10 per cent of total feeding activity observed over 12 months and was clearly seasonal (August–October). Fruit pulp was consumed regularly as a by-product of seed predation but was never solely targeted. As measured by the observed number of separate bouts of feeding by the parrots, the tree species most utilised by Meyer’s Parrot were the jackalberry tree (Diospyros mespiliformis), sausage tree (Kigelia africana), leadwood treeand sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus). In comparison, the tree species with the highest relative resource abundance (RRAi, the calculated index of relative resource (food) abundance) in the study area were the jackalberry, Kalahari apple-leaf (Lonchocarpus nelsii), mopane (Colophospermum mopane), knob-thornand leadwood trees
| Tree common name | Tree scientific name | Part parasitised | Insect | Month |
| Marula tree | Sclerocarya birrea caffra | Fruit pulp | Red marula caterpillar * Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidotera, Pyralidae) | Feb-Apr |
| Russet bushwillow | Combretum hereroense | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-Jul |
| Clusterleaf tree | Terminalia sericea | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-May |
| Camel thorn | Acacia erioloba | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Bruchidius uberatus * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Feb-Mar |
| Mopane | Colophospermum mopane | Petioles, leaves | Psyllid bug Arytaina mopani and exudate (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) | Aug-Sep |
* Important during the breeding season. Adapted from Boyes (2008)
Table 2. Comparison of relative food availability and amount of feeding on insect food items by Meyer’s Parrots
| Tree common name | 1 RRAi x 10-3 | 2 Per cent of max. RRAi | 3 Food item | No. feeding bouts | 4 Per cent of max. bouts |
| Marula tree | 535 | 11.2 | Moth larvae | 35 | 16.6 |
| Russet bushwillow | 1612 | 33.6 | Beetle larvae | 108 | 51.2 |
| Clusterleaf tree | 502 | 10.5 | Beetle larvae | 72 | 34.1 |
| Mopane | 3591 | 74.9 | Moth larvae True bugs | 88 29 | 41.7 13.7 |
1. Index of relative resource (food) abundance. 2. Per cent of the maximum RRAi of 4794 for the jackalberry tree. 3. Parasitic Lepidoptera (moth) larvae; Hemiptera (true bugs) and exudate; parasitic Coleoptera (beetle) larvae. 4.Per cent of the maximum number of feeding bouts of 211 (on ripe seeds) for the sycamore fig.
Adapted from Boyes (2008)
In researching the reproduction of Meyer’s Parrots, Boyes (2008) measured 75 nest cavities, including 28 nest cavities utilized by the parrots, twelve of which were used by active breeding pairs for nesting within the 430ha study area in the Okavango. Intensive nest observations revealed that Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons, although there was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to approximately 160 ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. Social constraints such as inter-specific competition for nest cavities, predation risk and brood parasitism likely supported the early incubation that facilitated this asynchrony. Probable significant factors in the timing and synchrony of breeding at population level were rainfall seasonality and the consumption of parasitic insect larvae incubating in pods and fruits of the diet. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences for nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this long-lived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Throughout its southern distributional range, Meyer’s Parrot has an auxiliary breeding season (September–November) in addition to the primary breeding season. It is also a species maintained in aviculture.
| Tree common name | Tree scientific name | Part parasitised | Insect | Month |
| Marula tree | Sclerocarya birrea caffra | Fruit pulp | Red marula caterpillar * Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidotera, Pyralidae) | Feb-Apr |
| Russet bushwillow | Combretum hereroense | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-Jul |
| Clusterleaf tree | Terminalia sericea | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Caryedon spp. * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Mar-May |
| Camel thorn | Acacia erioloba | Seed in pod | Bruchid beetle larva Bruchidius uberatus * (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) | Feb-Mar |
| Mopane | Colophospermum mopane | Petioles, leaves | Psyllid bug Arytaina mopani and exudate (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) | Aug-Sep |
* Important during the breeding season. Adapted from Boyes (2008)
Table 2. Comparison of relative food availability and amount of feeding on insect food items by Meyer’s Parrots
| Tree common name | 1 RRAi x 10-3 | 2 Per cent of max. RRAi | 3 Food item | No. feeding bouts | 4 Per cent of max. bouts |
| Marula tree | 535 | 11.2 | Moth larvae | 35 | 16.6 |
| Russet bushwillow | 1612 | 33.6 | Beetle larvae | 108 | 51.2 |
| Clusterleaf tree | 502 | 10.5 | Beetle larvae | 72 | 34.1 |
| Mopane | 3591 | 74.9 | Moth larvae True bugs | 88 29 | 41.7 13.7 |
1. Index of relative resource (food) abundance. 2. Per cent of the maximum RRAi of 4794 for the jackalberry tree. 3. Parasitic Lepidoptera (moth) larvae; Hemiptera (true bugs) and exudate; parasitic Coleoptera (beetle) larvae. 4.Per cent of the maximum number of feeding bouts of 211 (on ripe seeds) for the sycamore fig.
Adapted from Boyes (2008)
In researching the reproduction of Meyer’s Parrots, Boyes (2008) measured 75 nest cavities, including 28 nest cavities utilized by the parrots, twelve of which were used by active breeding pairs for nesting within the 430ha study area in the Okavango. Intensive nest observations revealed that Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons, although there was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to approximately 160 ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. Social constraints such as inter-specific competition for nest cavities, predation risk and brood parasitism likely supported the early incubation that facilitated this asynchrony. Probable significant factors in the timing and synchrony of breeding at population level were rainfall seasonality and the consumption of parasitic insect larvae incubating in pods and fruits of the diet. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences for nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this long-lived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Throughout its southern distributional range, Meyer’s Parrot has an auxiliary breeding season (September–November) in addition to the primary breeding season. It is also a species maintained in aviculture.
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